Animal testing Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Use of creatures for Laboratory Testing There has been an on going discussion on whether to utilize creatures for lab testing. There are individuals presently saying the utilization of creatures in research center testing isn't essential and there are different other options. A significant number of these individuals guarantee the tests that are performed on the creatures are not especially legitimate. Then again, others guarantee that research center testing has been relied upon creatures to accomplish clinical advances. Regardless of whether or on the other hand not the utilization of creatures in lab test involves supposition. It will take the essential examination and thought to make sense of what should be finished. Taking a more intensive gander at each issue will assist with indicating the utilization of research center testing ought not be utilized. There are three issues that show the utilization of creatures in research facility testing ought not be utilized: barbarous, superfluous, and there are different other options. The most clear issue not to utilize creatures in research facility testing is it’s pitiless to creatures. Creatures utilized in the labatories are utilized for testing medications, immunizations, and buyer items. Million of blameless creatures bite the dust every year to decide the security of items for people. â€Å"To my psyche life of the sheep is no less valuable that that of a individual. I ought to be reluctant to end the life of the sheep for the human body. I hold that, the more powerless an animal, the more qualified it is for assurance by man from the pitilessness of man† (Vincent 13). There are 2.5 million an...

Ethical Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Moral - Essay Example From fundamental nursing care to the development and basic nursing rehearses, to examines and home consideration framework, each technique to be done must be finished with most extreme comprehension of the method itself and its suggestions for both the patient and the medical caretaker expert. Butts and Rich (2012) expressed in their book Nursing Ethics: Across the Curriculum and Into Practice that â€Å"Rules and hypotheses matter little without the arrangement of good character† and accepted that medical attendants are confronted with moral issues each and every day. They included that guzzling course readings morals fills in as a durable establishment for medical attendants to create down to earth knowledge and righteous character by and by. Appraisal is the underlying advance in each nursing methodology in this manner it is crucial to initially decide the nurse’s comprehension of what moral issue truly implies. Many individuals misjudged morals as insignificant reco gnition of social standards, strict convictions or the law rather than it being its very own fair idea (Paul and Elder, 2006). It might be comprehended as an ethical standard of a particular individual, gathering, or custom and other creator permits its use to be tradable with â€Å"morality† (Deigh, 1995). ... furthermore, a procedure of enactment.† There is no total set in stone in reacting to moral predicaments however the objective for concluding acceptable behavior upon it depends on the essential idea of helpfulness and non-evil. The information on General Principles of Nursing Ethics is imperative in confronting these circumstances. It is significant that attendants know about these temperances so as to be appropriately guided in dynamic. These are helpfulness, non-wrathfulness, regard for self-sufficiency, equity, and regard for individual. Value is dynamic advancement of good while non-evil intends no damage. Regard for self-governance is recognizing the patient’s rights, qualities and decisions so as regard for individual which compares to regarding all patients as commendable person. Furthermore, ultimately, equity is the advancement of value or reasonableness in each circumstance a medical caretaker experiences (Barnett, 2003). Moral issues looked in the nursing pra ctice can be clinical issues identifying with persistent right and care, polished methodology, philosophical, authoritative and cultural (Bosek, 2009). One of the most widely recognized face is struggle between quiet self-sufficiency and nurse’s conviction, for example, disavowal of blood transfusion for the Jehova’s Witness or withdrawal from life continuing treatment regardless of whether it can cause lethal results, or tending to post-employable fetus removal patients that are done not for clinical purposes. A case of this was the dilemma looked by attendants of University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey when they were coordinated by the emergency clinic in September 2011 that all medical caretakers are required to aid pre-and post-employable consideration of premature birth patients (Katarsky, 2011). Obviously this presents moral fight against the nurses’ profound quality particularly on the off chance that they are genius life or have contradicting social and strict convictions.

Two castle Builders

Two castle Builders Hot sun. Salty air. Rhythmic waves.A little boy is on his knees scooping and packing the sand with plastic shovels into a bright blue bucket. Then he upends the bucket on the surface and lifts it. And, to the delight of the little architect, a castle tower is created.All afternoon he will work. Spooning out the moat. Packing the walls. Bottle tops will be sentries. Popsicle sticks will be bridges. A sandcastle will be built. Big city. Busy streets. Rumbling traffic.A man is in his office. At his desk he shuffles papers into stacks and delegates assignments. He cradles the phone on his shoulder and punches the keyboard with his fingers. Numbers are juggled and contracts are signed and much to the delight of the man, a profit is made.All his life he will work. Formulating the plans. Forecasting the future. Annuities will be sentries. Capital gains will be bridges. An empire will be built.Two builders of two castles. They have much in common. They shape granules into grandeurs. They se e nothing and make something. They are diligent and determined. And for both the tide will rise and the end will come.Yet that is where the similarities cease. For the boy sees the end while the man ignores it. Watch the boy as the dusk approaches.As the waves near, the wise child jumps to his feet and begins to clap. There is no sorrow. No fear. No regret. He knew this would happen. He is not surprised. And when the great breaker crashes into his castle and his masterpiece is sucked into the sea, he smiles. He smiles, picks up his tools, takes his fathers hand, and goes home.The grownup, however, is not so wise. As the wave of years collapses on his castle he is terrified. He hovers over the sandy monument to protect it. He blocks the waves from the walls he has made. Salt-water soaked and shivering he snarls at the incoming tide.Its my castle, he defies.The ocean need not respond. Both know to whom the sand belongsI dont know much about sandcastles. But children do. Watch them and learn. Go ahead and build, but build with a childs heart. When the sun sets and the tides take applaud. Salute the process of life and go home.Author Unknown

Pronouncing X in Spanish

You may have noticed that the Spanish x is sometimes pronounced like the English x, but sometimes like the English s. If so, you might be wondering: Are there rules about when it is pronounced as an x  and when its pronounced as an s? ‘X’ Between Vowels Due to regional variations, there arent any rules that hold true throughout the Spanish-speaking world. In general, however, when between vowels (as in exactamente) the Spanish x is pronounced like the English ks sound but softer or less explosive. ‘X’ Before Another Consonant When it comes before another consonant (as in expedicià ³n), it has the s sound in some regions/countries but the soft ks sound in others. In some areas, the letters pronunciation before a consonant varies from word to word. The only way to know for sure is to listen to someone speaking with the regional accent you wish to emulate. Words Beginning with ‘X’ When a word begins with x (there arent many such words, and most are English cognates), it is usually given the s sound, not the z sound of English. Thus a word like xenofobia sounds the same as if it were spelled senofobia. ‘X’ in Mexican Place Names In some Mexican place names, indeed in the name of Mà ©xico itself, the x is pronounced the same as the Spanish letter j  (or the english h). Oaxaca, for example, sounds like Wa-HA-ka. ‘X’ with a ‘Sh’ Sound Making matters more confusing is that in a few words of Catalan, Basque or indigenous American origin the x is pronounced like the English sh. This is especially common in southern Mexican and Central American place names. The No. 2 city of Guatemala, for example, is Xela, pronounced something like SHEL-lah.

Statement of Educational Goals And Philosophy Essay

Statement of Educational Goals And Philosophy The nature of students is that of an instinctive ability to learn. Students of ages and all grade levels reflect their surroundings and respond according to their interpretation. Naturally it is not only the influence of a classroom that shapes a student but many outside factors that determine students’ goals and abilities; for example, healthy encouragement from parents. Students may find a natural ability to perform in one area of education and with help may fine tune their ability to better their understanding of other areas. Students have a better understanding of education when it is relevant to their needs and everyday life. The nature of knowledge†¦show more content†¦The importance of education is seen in the goals of society from the dominance of math and science to launch the space race, to the back-to-basics program in order to improve world education ranking and ensure America as a strong educational nation. As a teacher I hope to enrich the lives of students and educated them to the best of my ability. Furthermore, I hope to set an example for students that is based on respect, truth, honor and fairness. Students come from diverse backgrounds and struggle to reach individual goals. As a teacher, I am obligated to see those challenges and help students set and meet their goals. For students in my classroom, that of an art class, must also deal with expression and individual ideas that will allow students to interpret their surroundings. In speaking of educational ethics a great responsibility will be placed upon me as is all teachers. Not only do I plan to teach art as a subject, but also to teach art as to reflect core values of society: respect for one’s work, responsibility in the use of supplies and fairness when critiquing one’s own work as well as that of fellow students. Incorporating and exposing students to the diverse ethnic backgrounds that have influenced art though out history, lessening the racial barriers still being created today. Society largely depicts what morals and values are appropriate for day to day living, however, society has also placed that responsibility upon theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Statement of Educational Goals and Philosophy689 Words   |  3 PagesStatement of Educational Goals and Philosophy I can still remember coming home from school after an exciting day in the first grade. I would go straight to my room, line all of my dolls up in the floor, and â€Å"teach† them everything I had learned earlier that day. But of course, not every child who pretends to be a teacher in his or her early years actually becomes a teacher. So although I enjoyed â€Å"teaching,† I never really considered it as a choice for my life-long career. Read MoreEssay on Statement of Philosophy and Educational Goals760 Words   |  4 PagesStatement of Philosophy and Educational Goals In the following report, I will be discussing my personal philosophy on education and my educational goals. My philosophy will include some of my personal opinions on the nature of students, the nature of knowledge, the purpose of public education, teaching methods and the importance of curriculum. My educational goals will focus on my development plans and future education. I feel that it is natural for students, or forRead More Statement of Educational Goals and Philosophy Essay1159 Words   |  5 PagesStatement of Educational Goals and Philosophy As children we have many goals and dreams. Eventually, the time comes when we have to make a career decision based on our interests and goals. The choices that we make now will have a lasting effect on our lives. Like most college students I have explored many career options, but I am always lead back to the education field. Teachers have a very difficult job because they have the power to shape and inspire our future nation. AlthoughRead More My Educational Goals and Philosophy Statement Essay867 Words   |  4 PagesMy Educational Goals and Philosophy Statement I believe that each child is a unique individual who needs a secure, caring, and stimulating atmosphere in which to grow and mature emotionally, intellectually, physically, socially, and academically. It is my desire as a future educator to help students meet their fullest potential by providing an environment that is safe, supports risk-taking, and invites a sharing of ideas. There are two elements that I believe are essential to establishingRead More Statement of Educational Goals and Philosophy Essay examples1059 Words   |  5 PagesStatement of Educational Goals and Philosophy Knowledge is a very powerful thing, and to be able to deliver this to today’s youth has been a dream of mine for a long time. There are many advantages to teaching. I feel that is a very fulfilling profession. I have seen my sister in the classroom, and it greatly inspired me to want to make a difference in some ones life. Through watching my sister in action I was inspired to follow in her footsteps. I believe that each child has the willRead MoreEssay on My Educational Goals and Philosophy Statement1439 Words   |  6 PagesMy Educational Goals and Philosophy Statement The most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others -Grayson Kirk. The teaching philosophy of progressivism focuses on developing the whole child. This philosophy not only teaches the core subject material, but it also allows the teacher to help develop the person the child is going to be. John Dewey, founderRead More My Educational Goals and Philosophy Statement Essay881 Words   |  4 PagesMy Education Philosophy Developing a personal education philosophy is a process that may never end, but I believe that I am in the midst of creating one based on my own experiences and the lessons I am receiving in college. After examining the various education philosophies outlined in the â€Å"Teachers, Schools Society† textbook by Myra Pollack Sadker and David Miller Sadker, I have decided that my present philosophy is an eclectic combination of Essentialism andRead More My Educational Goals and Philosophy Statement Essays1035 Words   |  5 PagesMy Eclectic Educational Philosophy Thinking back on the years of high school, I remember having wonderful experiences both inside the classroom and out. I had influential teachers and the drive to succeed in order to obtain a higher education. I realize that not all students have that drive to continue their education, but as an aspiring educator I wish to seek and find that drive in each of my students. The famous philosopher and educator, John Dewey, once said, The aim of educationRead More My Educational Goals and Philosophy Statement Essay721 Words   |  3 PagesMy Education Philosophy I’ve always believed very strongly in hard work, perseverance, strong moral character. These traits to me are what exemplifies a superior teacher that has the privilege to touch many lives and change the world we live in. Hardwork is something that isn’t artificial, or can’t be bought. It’s a very special characteristic that sets people apart in the respect that it shows who want’s to be successful and make a difference and who doesn’t. InRead MoreMy Personal Philosophy Of Education1476 Words   |  6 PagesAbaya, PhD Personal Philosophy of Education Submitted by: Wessam Elamawy . Personal Philosophy of Education Introduction: From the very beginning of my life I recognized the importance of higher education. I am 34 years old. I am Egyptian. I was born in a highly educated family . My father earned a Ph.D. in chemistry. My uncle earned a Ph.D. in Engineering . My aunt is a doctor. My grandparents were highly educated and they were great leaders in the educational field. This shaped

Cuban Missile Crisis Bibliography Free Essays

Annotated Bibliography Assignment. Divine, Robert A. The Cuban Missile Crisis. We will write a custom essay sample on Cuban Missile Crisis Bibliography or any similar topic only for you Order Now New York: Markus Weiner Publishing, 1988. This book written by Robert Divine is an historical overview of the most important events, causes, and the consequences after and during Cuban Missile Crisis revolution of 1962 This author provides a concise but not oversimplified review of the many complicated aspects of this affair; wich brought the world to the age of nuclear war. This book helps me to have a better point of view about all Cuban Missile Crisis revolution of 1962 including some Cuban points of view and also American points of view, wich are very important to have a better understanding of this big event. Garthoff, Raymond L. â€Å"Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis†. Washington D. C. : The Brookings , 1989. In this book Garthoff has revised earlier analysis to make the most accurate, eye-opening story yet of the 1962 crisis. This book focuses in the nature of the crisis, its consequences and its lessons for the future, It provides a combination of memoir, historical analysis and political interpretation, and also it gives particular attention to the aftermath of the crisis. This helps me to solve how this war happened and how it affected the world. Laurence Chang, Peter Kornbluh. The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962. New York: The New Press, 1992. In this book written by Chang and Kornbluh, are released documents reveal just how dangerously close the world came to nuclear destruction in 1962 and also provides me the official correspondence between John F. Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev and Fidel Castro. It focuses on the political decisions between countries and how they controlled this crisis. This book would help to understand the political problems and the relationships between these countries. James G. Blight, Bruce J. Allyn and David A. Welch. Cuba in the brink. New york: Pantheon Books, 1993. This book is an analysis of Cuba, Its relations with the superpowers, and its role during the missile crisis is superb and unmatched in the existing scholarship on this topic This book helps me to know more about Cuba and to have more contexts in Cuba’s role in this crisis, also this book tells me about the political and social intentions of the U. S. A over Cuba. And how they found a solution to this problem. Topping, Seymour. On the Front Lines of the Cold War : An American Correspondent’s Journal from the Chinese Civil War to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Vietnam. Los Angeles: LSU Press , 2010. This e-book was written trough several researches by Seymour, This book helps me to know more about this Big war and to have a background to see how this war is related to Cuban Missile Crisis, and how Cuba was involved in this huge problem. This book focuses on Cuban history and its relation with the world problems. I found it very interesting and useful because give me more information about Cuban history. How to cite Cuban Missile Crisis Bibliography, Papers

The existence of God Based on Religious Experience free essay sample

1. Examine the strengths and weaknesses of the argument for the existence of God based on religious experience. (18) 2. ‘The argument merely indicates the probability of God and this is of little value to a religious believer.’ Discuss. (12) In contrast to the classical arguments for the existence of God, namely the ontological, cosmological and teleological arguments, the argument from religious experience doesn’t just entail a set logical of points arriving at a conclusion on a piece of paper, rather it also necessitates sense-based experience, tangible to the individual who experiences the divine. First and foremost, we must classify the argument from religious experience. In general, philosophical arguments usually take one of two forms: either they are deductive arguments, moving from general principles to unfolding the logical implications (e.g. the ontological argument); or they are inductive arguments, proposing the best explanation for a set of observations (e.g. the cosmological argument [â€Å"God is first cause†] and the teleological argument [â€Å"God is the final cause†]). We will write a custom essay sample on The existence of God Based on Religious Experience or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Inductive arguments therefore lead to conclusions that are probabilities, which may require empirical verification. The argument from religious experience can be described as an inductive argument. And the inductive argument, reduced to a logical form, can be described as: P1: If an entity is directly experienced, it must exist; P2: God is the sort of being that can be directly experienced; P3: People have claimed, in fact, to have experienced God directly; C: Therefore God exists. The argument from religious experience also takes the form of an appeal to intuition (direct, immediate knowledge). In this regard, it is more of an assertion than a sophisticated, effable argument. Peter Donovan argues that we can essentially know God by religious experience, implying that experiencing God is a superior way of knowing him (intuitively) than our Reason (man’s mental capacity). In the terminology of the later philosophers, this is an a posteriori argument (dependent on observation or sense perception). Further classified, the argument from religious experience arrives at a synthetic proposition – namely that God exists. Synthetic statements are those that are true or false depending upon the circumstances, such as â€Å"All bachelors are sad,† as opposed to analytic statements which are true or false by definition,† such as â€Å"All bachelors are unmarried.† An a posteriori argument for a synthetic proposition means that, interestingly, philosophers working in both the Rationalist and Empiricist traditions could potentially accept this argument. Strictly speaking, the former believe that our mind shapes our experiences (like Kant) and the latter believe that our experiences shape our minds (like Hume). Having outlined the form of the argument, we must ask: what do we exactly mean by the phrase â€Å"religious experience† and what qualifies as religious experience? The term â€Å"religious experience† can conjure up a wide and diverse series of images. There could be trigger factors or contexts to having such an experience, for example, near death experiences, conversion (to another religion or better set of values), individual or collective worship and the sheer beauty of the universe. The most common way of defining religious experience is that it is â€Å"an encounter with the divine.† It could also be â€Å"an experience of religion†, or merely reduced to a â€Å"spiritual feeling† or â€Å"mysticism†. The pragmatic philosopher, William James describes religious experience as an experience where God is revealed and there is an experience with the divine. Those who insist on human spirituality (religious or a-religious) would argue the best way to know the supernatural is to experience it. However, such experiences are difficult to define collectively and remain individualistic. This is why the pragmatic philosopher, William James, in his Varieties of Religious Experience sees it necessary to characterise religious experience,  otherwise anything and everything could be considered an â€Å"experience of religion†. James lists four qualifiers of mystical experiences: ineffability (a state that defies description), noetic quality (revelations of universal and eternal truths), transiency (a brief but profoundly important experience) and passivity (a feeling of being taken over by a superior authority). The father of liberal theology, Schleiermacher, made â€Å"passivity† the most important qualifier. He took the concept a step further and proposed that the â€Å"essence of religion is the feeling of absolute dependence† and this approach was supported by scholars such as Rudolf Otto, who defined religious experience as â€Å"wholly other†. For Schleiermacher, in particular, and, additionally, the Islamic mystic Al-Ghazali, true religion was completely experiential and it should therefore be felt rather than thought. He believed that logic destroys religious experience because religious experience is a matter of intuitive knowledge, not processed knowledge. Intuition is belief, where as logic creates doubts. In many spiritual systems (religious or independent of religion) the human instinct is held in high regard. It was for this reason that Iqbal, the late Islamic philosopher of the modern era, disagreed with Al-Ghazali. Religious experience is a very important concept for those who believe that way to know God is to experience Him. There is a spiritual, mystical dimension to all the world religions – in fact, the Eastern religions rely heavily on sense-based knowledge. The Western religions are not devoid of this either. We have discussed Schleiermacher and his views are on par with Eastern Christianity. Al-Ghazali’s methodology is pertinent as it marks a time in Islamic thought where Sufism, or mysticism, became considered an orthodox practice. Al-Ghazali himself was given the alias â€Å"Proof of Islam† (Hujjat al-Islam). Religious experience is therefore seen as an important argument, if not concept within faith. Is it really the case that God can be experienced directly; granted that  people have what they call â€Å"religious experiences†, how can we verify that their cause is God and not some other cause; do the weaknesses of this argument necessarily entail the rejection of the conclusion? Firstly we can discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the argument in terms of its premises. P1 states that â€Å"If an entity is directly experienced, it exists†. Arguably, the proof we rely on most of all in the twenty-first century is our own experience. If we have seen, heard or experienced something, we accept the â€Å"truth† of whatever it may be. For those philosophers working in the Empiricist tradition (Hume, Bertrand Russell, Dawkins), this is appealing. The premise is an analytic statement – it is generally true by definition -, and therefore would be accepted by Logical Positivists and their Verificationism. P2 states that â€Å"God is the sort of being that can be experienced†. In the Classical Theism espoused by the three Abrahamic faiths, God is omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient. He is also transcendent and immanent, personal and impersonal. With these major attributes, God is thought be able to be experienced, by default. Quranic injunctions, such as, â€Å"If you remember Him, He will remember you,† (2:152), and the concept of Ihsan – the Prophet Muhammad is recorded to have said, â€Å"Ihsan is to worship God as if you see him, and if you can’t do that then know that he is seeing You,† (Hadith of Gabriel in Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim) – forms the basis of an experience-based God in Islam. However, is the Prophet Muhammad saying that one may â€Å"see† or â€Å"feel† God literally? The Ashari theologians of Sunni Islam argued that certain attributes of God which are seemingly anthromorphic should not be taken litera lly, so, when God mentions His â€Å"Hand† (Arabic: Yad) in the Quran, it is representative of his Power. Similarly, when we say God is â€Å"experienced†, what does this really mean? Despite being considered an orthodox theologian of Christianity, Thomas Aquinas argued that God cannot be experienced in the way that human beings experience things. This is because God is transcendent and above mortal senses of observation, smell, taste, hearing, touch and the sixth sense – often described as â€Å"intuition† and is vital to the processing of religious  experience. Similarly, Kant argues that given our human senses are finite and limited, it is impossible to ‘experience’ an infinite and unlimited God. P3 states that â€Å"People have claimed to experience God directly.† This premise is probably the most problematic, from various perspectives.   It is said that up to 28% of the human race have religious experiences in the sense that they have, at some point in their life, had an experience of being aware of the presence of God. Such experiences must be deconstructed. Hume, a Sceptic and Empiricist, argued that people who experience God are in fact lying or mentally ill. He also argued that different religious experience (and by extension miracles) from different religions cancel each other out. Take the example of Schleiermacher who uses religious experience to prove the superiority of Christianity, or Al-Ghazali who uses religious experience to prove the superiority of the Prophetic Way and Islam. The Prophet Muhammad’s religious experience (revelation) in the Cave of Hira in Mecca brought him the message of the One and Only God, on the other hand Guru Nanak’s experience opened the gateway to a more pantheistic God. A critical thinker may find discrepancy here, and conclude that all religions can’t be true, so their respective religious experiences can’t be true either. By reverse, someone pragmatic about religious experience may argue that what is important in religious experience is not necessarily the varying religions but God and the experience itself. This forms the basis of Perennial or Syncretistic mysticism, espoused by Sufi thinkers in the West like Fritjof Schuon and writers like William Dalrymple (he talks about the history of Religious Syncretism in India to promote pluralism). The reasoning behind this is: since all religions have developed a sense-based, mystical dimension, the truth lies in the experiences, not the religion, and so the experiences are to be extracted to alone which leads us to a supernatural being. For the Logical Positivists, such claims of religious experiences should be essentially verified to be proven as true. A. J. Ayer who promoted this  school of philosophy presented harsher ideas in his book â€Å"Language, Truth and Logic†. He said that any talk of God is essentially â€Å"nonsense† and â€Å"meaningless†. Similar to some religious theologians who believe God is above our logic, Ayer, despite being a de facto atheist, took it one step further and concluded that since God is above logic, we cannot talk about Him. Perhaps this is the reason for the ineffability of such experiences. But in some ways, this does not really contribute to whether the argument is true or not and acts as a barrier to discourse. Perhaps the harsh stance of the Logical Positivists does not produce any answers to our continuous questions. Freud, a materialist thinker and a renowned psychologist provided a natural explanation for such claimed religious experiences. He believed people were completely material beings. In other words, if we understood everything about the biological/physical side of life, we would fully understand human beings. Religious experiences for Freud were just illusions and were the result of a psychological need – for example, the desire to project a father image on to the universe having recognised their own fathers as fallible, human and finite. More particularly, he believed that they were projections of the ultimate, oldest and most profound ideas that people had. Dawkins, similarly, dismisses religious experience as â€Å"hallucinations†. He mentions the case of the â€Å"Yorkshire Ripper† who heard the voice of Jesus telling him to kill women. Even religious believers said accepted this as a hallucination. Why? Because of the belief that Jesus would never preach something â€Å"wrong†. A question to religious believers may be, that, if the â€Å"Yorkshire Ripper† had heard Jesus telling him to â€Å"love† and not â€Å"kill†, would it still be a hallucination? If the Yorkshire Ripper was clearly prone to having hallucinations, then at a medical and scientific level, this would still be a hallucination. If religious believers consider this false, then it shows a lack of objectivity. William James, presented a unique counterargument. He accepted that religious  experiences are psychological phenomena: that they occur within the brain and are cognitive. However, for James, this is not a flaw. Rather, these psychological experiences do not just have a physical justification, but also a supernatural one. The four qualities that James lists of religious experience are telling us that there are realities beyond this world. Another question then arises, beyond psychological disorder, are we experiencing God, or have we misunderstood? Is it not possible that a more rational thinking and modern person would sit and recollect their thoughts after such an experience? Perhaps it was not God that the person experienced, but just an energy part and parcel of the universe. If we take the example of a converted mosque in a British city and compare it to a beautifully designed mosque of Ottoman Turkey, a person is likely to â€Å"feel† the presence of God in the Ottoman mosque, than the mosque in Britain, despite the prayers being exactly the same. A natural explanation would be the architecture. Therefore, surroundings may play an important part in religious experiences. In Dawkins’ book, â€Å"The Magic of Reality†, he is keen to make the reader realise that there is a sort of natural, not supernatural, â€Å"magic† in the universe and things that humans create. We also forget the idea of atheistic mystical experience. Again, it may not be that one has experienced God. Many members of the New Age Spiritual Movement were non-believers. In fact, some forms of classical Hinduism and Buddhism do not necessarily require belief in a Creator, and no one can deny the importance of mysticism in the Eastern religion. Swinburne, on the other hand, argues that we should not be so cynical and regulatory of people’s own experiences. He proposes the â€Å"Principle of Credulity† and the â€Å"Principle of Testimony† which state that we ought to believe things are the way they seem to us in the absence of counter evidence. The final conclusion of the argument from religious experience is the synthetic proposition that â€Å"God exists†. Has there been a leap in conclusion? Can this synthetic proposition truly be proved or even accepted when there are so many problems among the premises? At the same time, if no body had religious experiences, there would be no basis for the idea of ‘god’, nor would there have been any reason for religions to have developed. The empirical nature of this argument, despite the experience not being able to be proved is very appealing in our rational yet sense-based age.